Published On: 18th October, 2024
Authored By: Ashwin R Nair
Lloyd School of Law, Greater Noida
ABSTRACT
This article delves into the evolution and impact of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in environmental law within India. By examining the pivotal role played by the judiciary in interpreting constitutional provisions to address environmental grievances, this article highlights key cases that have shaped India’s environmental jurisprudence. The discussion encompasses the development of indigenous juristic techniques, the relaxation of locus standi, and the integration of international doctrines. Through an analysis of landmark cases, the article underscores the judiciary’s contribution to balancing environmental protection with developmental needs.
KEYWORDS: Public Interest Litigation (PIL), Environmental Law, Judicial Interpretation, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental degradation poses a significant threat to public health and natural resources in India. Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and population growth have led to severe environmental challenges, including air and water pollution, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity. Addressing these issues requires a robust legal framework and effective enforcement mechanisms. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has emerged as a powerful tool in the hands of the judiciary to address environmental issues and enforce legal frameworks effectively. By allowing individuals and groups to file petitions on behalf of affected communities, PIL has democratized access to justice and reinforced the constitutional mandate for a healthy environment.
BACKGROUND
The development of environmental law in India has been significantly influenced by the judiciary’s proactive approach to interpreting the Constitution. Articles 32 and 226 of the Indian Constitution empower the Supreme Court and High Courts to address grievances through writ petitions. Although environmental matters are not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the courts have interpreted Article 21, which guarantees the right to life, to include the right to a healthy environment. This judicial creativity has been instrumental in evolving a comprehensive environmental jurisprudence in India.
EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL JURISPRUDENCE
The evolution of environmental jurisprudence in India can be traced back to the 1980s, a period marked by judicial activism and the rise of PIL. The courts began to adopt a more expansive interpretation of the right to life under Article 21, incorporating environmental protection as an essential component of this fundamental right. This period saw the judiciary taking a proactive stance in addressing environmental concerns, often stepping in where legislative and executive measures were deemed inadequate.
JUDICIAL ACTIVISM & ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The role of the judiciary in environmental protection gained prominence with landmark judgments that set the tone for future environmental jurisprudence. The Supreme Court and High Courts began to entertain PILs filed by public-spirited individuals and organizations, addressing issues ranging from pollution control to wildlife conservation. The courts’ willingness to relax the traditional rules of locus standi allowed more cases to be brought before them, facilitating greater public participation in environmental governance.
ESTABLISHMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS
Recognizing the need for specialized adjudication in environmental matters, the Indian judiciary established dedicated environmental courts and tribunals. The National Green Tribunal (NGT), established in 2010, has played a pivotal role in addressing environmental disputes and ensuring the enforcement of environmental laws. The NGT’s mandate includes the expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection, providing an effective forum for resolving environmental conflicts.
KEY LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORKS SUPPORTING ENVIRONMENTAL PIL
Several legislative frameworks have bolstered the effectiveness of environmental PILs in India. These laws provide the necessary legal basis for the judiciary to intervene and enforce environmental protections. Key among these are the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986; the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; and the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. These statutes have been instrumental in shaping India’s environmental regulatory landscape.
ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, serves as an umbrella legislation for the protection and improvement of the environment. It grants the central government broad powers to take measures necessary for protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling, and abating environmental pollution[1]. The Act has been invoked in numerous PILs to enforce environmental standards and regulations.
WATER (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, was one of the earliest legislative measures aimed at controlling water pollution. It established the Central and State Pollution Control Boards, which play a crucial role in monitoring and regulating water pollution[2]. The Act has been pivotal in PILs addressing the contamination of water bodies and ensuring the implementation of water quality standards.
AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, addresses air pollution and aims to preserve the quality of air. It empowers the central and state boards to set air quality standards and regulate emissions from industrial plants[3]. This Act has been the basis for several PILs seeking to control air pollution in urban and industrial areas.
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, was enacted to curb deforestation and conserve forests. It restricts the use of forest land for non-forest purposes without the prior approval of the central government[4]. The Act has been instrumental in PILs aimed at preventing the diversion of forest land for industrial and developmental activities, thereby safeguarding biodiversity and ecological balance.
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PIL
The Indian judiciary has played a crucial role in shaping environmental law by creatively interpreting constitutional provisions. By expanding the scope of Article 21 to encompass environmental protection, the courts have established a strong foundation for addressing environmental grievances. The use of Articles 32 and 226 has enabled direct access to the Supreme Court and High Courts, bypassing lengthy and costly appeals processes. This proactive stance has ensured that environmental issues receive the urgent attention they deserve.
In addition to Article 21, other constitutional provisions have been invoked to support environmental protection. Article 48A directs the State to endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife. Similarly, Article 51A(g) enjoins every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment. These provisions, though directive in nature, have been used by the judiciary to bolster environmental protection efforts.
RELAXATION OF LOCUS STANDI
One of the most significant contributions of the judiciary to environmental law is the relaxation of locus standi rules, allowing any individual or organization to file a PIL on behalf of affected communities. This departure from the traditional “proof of injury” approach has facilitated the filing of numerous environmental cases, addressing issues that impact the broader public rather than individual grievances. The relaxation of locus standi has empowered citizens, NGOs, and social activists to act as guardians of the environment.
The relaxation of locus standi is particularly important in a country like India, where a large section of the population may not have the resources or awareness to approach the courts. By allowing public-spirited individuals and organizations to file PILs, the judiciary has ensured that environmental issues affecting marginalized and vulnerable communities receive judicial attention. This has democratized access to justice and has been instrumental in addressing systemic environmental issues.
INTEGRATION OF INTERNATIONAL DOCTRINES
The judiciary has also integrated various international environmental doctrines into domestic law. By incorporating principles such as the Polluter Pays Principle, the Precautionary Principle, and the Doctrine of Public Trust, the courts have enhanced the legal framework for environmental protection. These doctrines have been instrumental in holding polluters accountable and ensuring sustainable development.
The Polluter Pays Principle mandates that those who generate pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health or the environment. This principle has been applied in several landmark cases to ensure that industries and entities responsible for environmental degradation are held financially liable for their actions.
The Precautionary Principle advocates for preventive action in the face of environmental harm. It emphasizes that the lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental damage. The courts have used this principle to justify stringent regulatory measures in cases where there is a potential risk to the environment.
The Doctrine of Public Trust holds that certain natural resources are preserved for public use, and the government, as a trustee, is responsible for their protection. This doctrine has been used to protect forests, rivers, and other natural resources from exploitation and degradation.
LANDMARK CASES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PIL
MUNICIPAL COUNCIL, RATLAM V. SHRI VARDHICHAND & OTHERS
In this landmark case, the Supreme Court introduced the concept of PIL in environmental matters. The Municipal Council of Ratlam was held accountable for failing to establish a proper drainage system, citing financial inability. The Court emphasized that public health and environmental protection are paramount duties of municipal bodies, which cannot be shirked due to financial constraints. This case set a precedent for holding public authorities accountable for environmental protection[5].
M.C. MEHTA V. UNION OF INDIA (1987)
Following the oleum gas leak in Delhi, the Supreme Court introduced the doctrine of Absolute Liability for industries engaged in hazardous activities. This doctrine, evolved from the principle of strict liability, holds offenders completely accountable for any harm caused, without allowing for defenses to mitigate liability. This case marked a significant shift in environmental jurisprudence, emphasizing the protection of public health over industrial interests[6].
VELLORE CITIZENS’ WELFARE FORUM V. UNION OF INDIA (1996)
In this case, the Supreme Court invoked the Polluter Pays Principle to address the discharge of untreated effluents by tanneries into the Palar River in Tamil Nadu. The Court extended the principle of absolute liability to include compensation for victims and restoration of environmental degradation. This case underscored the judiciary’s commitment to balancing developmental activities with environmental protection.
ROLE OF PUBLIC DOCTRINE
M.C. MEHTA V. KAMAL NATH (1997)
In this case, the Supreme Court reinforced the Doctrine of Public Trust by holding that the government must protect public resources such as riverbeds from encroachment and illegal activities. The case concerned the illegal construction of a resort in the catchment area of the Beas River, which led to significant environmental degradation. The Court ruled that such actions violated the public trust doctrine, emphasizing the government’s obligation to preserve natural resources for public use and the environment’s sustainability. This landmark decision underscored the principle that the environment, as a public resource, must be safeguarded from commercial exploitation and misuse.
INDIAN COUNCIL FOR ENVIRO-LEGAL ACTION V. UNION OF INDIA (1996)
The Supreme Court addressed the issue of hazardous waste management in this case. The Court used the Doctrine of Public Trust to argue that the disposal of hazardous waste should not compromise public health or the environment. It ruled that industries responsible for hazardous waste must bear the costs of managing and mitigating the impacts of their activities. The Court’s decision highlighted the importance of holding entities accountable for their environmental impact, reinforcing the doctrine’s relevance in ensuring environmental justice.
THE NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL (NGT)
ESTABLISHMENT AND JURISDICTION
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established by the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, to address environmental disputes and ensure the effective implementation of environmental laws. The NGT’s jurisdiction encompasses a wide range of environmental issues, including water, air, forests, and biodiversity. The Tribunal is tasked with adjudicating cases related to environmental protection, forest conservation, and the enforcement of environmental laws.
The NGT was created to provide a specialized forum for environmental disputes, aiming to offer swift and effective resolution of cases. It serves as an appellate body for decisions made by environmental authorities and plays a crucial role in ensuring compliance with environmental regulations. The NGT’s establishment marked a significant step in strengthening environmental governance and addressing the growing complexity of environmental issues.
FUNCTIONING AND IMPACT
The NGT has made substantial contributions to environmental protection in India by issuing directives, imposing penalties, and ensuring the implementation of environmental laws. The Tribunal has been instrumental in addressing issues such as industrial pollution, illegal mining, and forest conservation. Its decisions have had a significant impact on environmental governance, promoting transparency and accountability in environmental management.
One notable case adjudicated by the NGT involved the illegal construction of a thermal power plant in the ecologically sensitive region of the Western Ghats. The Tribunal ordered the suspension of construction activities and mandated compliance with environmental regulations. This decision underscored the NGT’s role in balancing developmental activities with environmental protection.
CHALLENGES AND CRITICISMS
OVERBURDENED JUDICIARY AND DELAYS
Despite the judiciary’s proactive approach to environmental protection, there are challenges related to the overburdened court system and delays in case resolution. The influx of PILs and environmental cases has often led to prolonged legal battles, affecting the timely enforcement of environmental regulations. The backlog of cases in the Supreme Court and High Courts can impede the swift resolution of urgent environmental issues.
IMPLEMENTATION AND ENFORCEMENT
Another challenge is the effective implementation and enforcement of judicial directives and environmental regulations. While the courts have issued numerous orders to address environmental issues, there are instances where compliance has been inadequate. Ensuring that judicial decisions translate into tangible environmental improvements requires robust enforcement mechanisms and coordination between various government agencies.
BALANCING DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The judiciary faces the ongoing challenge of balancing developmental needs with environmental protection. Economic growth and development often create competing demands for land and resources, raising concerns about the impact on the environment. The courts must navigate these complexities to ensure that developmental activities do not undermine environmental sustainability.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
STRENGTHENING SPECIALIZED ENVIRONMENT COURTS
To address the challenges faced by the judiciary in handling environmental cases, there is a need to strengthen specialized environmental courts and tribunals. Enhancing the capacity and resources of these institutions can improve their efficiency and effectiveness in resolving environmental disputes. Specialized courts can provide focused attention to environmental issues and ensure timely adjudication.
ENHANCING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Increasing public participation in environmental governance is crucial for addressing emerging environmental challenges. Encouraging community involvement, transparency, and stakeholder engagement can enhance the effectiveness of environmental policies and legal frameworks. Public participation can also empower citizens to play an active role in environmental protection and advocacy.
FOSTERING COLLABORATION BETWEEN STAKEHOLDERS
Collaboration between government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector is essential for effective environmental management. Strengthening partnerships and coordinating efforts can lead to more comprehensive and integrated approaches to environmental protection. Collaborative initiatives can address complex environmental issues and promote sustainable development.
PROMOTING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND EDUCATION
Raising environmental awareness and education among the public can contribute to a more informed and engaged society. Educational programs, awareness campaigns, and community outreach initiatives can foster a greater understanding of environmental issues and the importance of protecting natural resources. An informed public can advocate for stronger environmental protections and support sustainable practices.
CONCLUSION
Public Interest Litigation has played a transformative role in advancing environmental protection and justice in India. By enabling citizens and organizations to bring environmental issues before the courts, PIL has democratized access to justice and reinforced the constitutional mandate for a healthy environment. The judiciary’s proactive stance in interpreting constitutional provisions, relaxing locus standi rules, and integrating international doctrines has been instrumental in shaping India’s environmental jurisprudence.
Landmark cases and the establishment of specialized environmental tribunals have contributed to the development of a robust legal framework for environmental protection. However, challenges such as overburdened courts, enforcement issues, and balancing development with environmental sustainability persist. Addressing these challenges requires continued innovation, collaboration, and public engagement.
As India moves forward, the judiciary’s commitment to environmental justice will remain a cornerstone of its environmental governance. Strengthening legal institutions, enhancing public participation, and fostering collaboration among stakeholders will be essential for addressing emerging environmental issues and achieving sustainable development. The ongoing evolution of environmental PIL reflects the judiciary’s dedication to ensuring that environmental protection remains a priority in India’s legal and governance frameworks.
References
[1] The Environment (Protection) Act, Act No. 29, 1986, India
[2] Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, Act No. 6, 1974, India
[3] The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, Act No. 14, 1981, India
[4] The Forest (Conservation) Act, Act No. 69, 1980, India
[5] AIR 1622, 1981 SCR (1) 97
[6] AIR 1086, 1987 SCR (1) 819
